Climate Challenge - Climate Challenge Options Workbook

Controlling Transmission Line Flows

Improved power electronics incorporating the new technology of large silicon, solid-state switches, called thyristors, can help utilities increase transmission system capacity while reducing susceptibility to power disturbances, thus enhancing the control of power flow. Thyristors are being incorporated into programs such as the Electric Power Research Institute's Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) and DOE's real time system control and HVDC Cost Reduction programs.

By increasing or decreasing the power flow on specific lines, utilities can tailor power delivery strategies to best utilize their systems and reduce problems associated with loop flow. System optimization will allow more effective integration and use of renewable energy, energy storage, and demand-side management resources in the electric system, leading to possible further greenhouse gas reductions.

Savings may also be realized from reduced spinning reserve requirements -- the generating capacity needed to serve as backup, rather than to meet actual demand for electricity. Reduced spinning reserve requirements could reduce emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants. Additional savings can result by balancing phase currents, thereby reducing the amount of losses associated with residual currents.

Increasing the current flow on a transmission line, however, will increase line losses. These losses require the generation of additional electricity, which could result in additional greenhouse gas emissions. Any increased emissions must be considered in evaluating the net impact of the project.

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Barriers:

In many cases, transmission line flows may already be sufficiently optimized such that further line flow controls may not be cost-effective.
Research an development still needed in protection and control areas and in FACTS device technology.
Non-acceptance by a neighboring utility, which may perceive a negative impact.
Higher line currents will produce higher magnetic fields.

Solutions:

Continue EPRI research and development focused on commercialization of FACTS.
Transposition of transmission lines can reduce unbalanced currents.

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Partnerships:

DOE, Bonneville Power Administration, Western Area Power Authority, EPRI, NERC, electric utilities, and equipment manufacturers.
Oak Ridge National Laboratory: Jim Van Coevening, Manager, Power Systems Technology Program, Energy Division, (615) 574-4829.

Case Studies:

Northern States Power's series compensation of a 500 kV line.
Florida Power & Light (FPL) series compensation project to improve power flow and system stability.
General Electric/Bonneville Power Authority/EPRI Slatt Thyristor switched capacitor project.
Westinghouse/TVA/EPRI static condenser project.
Pennsylvania Electric Company is participating in a collaborative research project with other Pennsylvania utilities through the Pennsylvania Electric Energy Research Council (PEERC) to develop software that will allow more efficient transmission of power. The software package will monitor and graphically display the feasible MW transfers constrained by both thermal and voltage limits as a function of inter-area imports. Having identified remaining transfer capacity of the transmission system, the operator can run the system closer to capacity.
FPL investigation of dynamic rating of transmission line conductors.

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Option Category:

Transmission

Conductor Loss Optimization and Phase Current Optimization

The resistance a conductor offers to the flow of electricity is inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area, i.e., the larger the diameter of the conductor, the less resistance the current will encounter. Resistance is also a function of the type of material of which the conductor is made. Thus, by replacing a conductor with one of a larger diameter or changing to a material which offers less resistance, power loss can be reduced when the same current is flowing through the conductor. Segmenting shield wires can also eliminate losses associated with loop flows through this path.

Reconductoring existing lines is generally only cost-effective when a thermal capacity increase is needed.

Not all utilities consider losses in the design of transmission lines.

Pole, tower, and cross arm strength are a concern for existing lines. Most transmission facilities are built and designed to the size of the conductor on the line. A larger conductor adds greater windage, weight, and ice loading levels which may exceed the design capability of the tower equipment. Therefore, in many cases, increasing the line capacity requires a complete rebuild of the line, not just reconductoring.

There is additional warehousing cost of equipment needed if non-standard size conductors are used.

Public perception problems with electric and magnetic fields (EMF).

Environmental permitting can be extensive, especially where structure rebuilding is necessary. Environmental regulations are often unclear for this type of project. Lengthy permitting processes and costly conditions in permits may preclude consideration of or implementing a reconductoring project.

Solutions:

Examine the use of existing load flow models or develop regional models for economic evaluation of conductor losses.
Participate in the commercialization of available "super" conductors.
Utilities that do not do so presently could consider employing conductor loss optimization on new transmission lines.
Examine ways to clarify and simplify environmental permitting, taking into account the advantages of using an existing transmission corridor and the fact that line losses would be reduced.

Partnerships:

Utilities, and equipment suppliers.

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Option Category:

Transmission

Increasing Transmission Line Voltage

Increasing the voltage of a transmission line increases the efficiency of transmission of electricity over the line. Using the highest transmission voltage that is operationally and economically justified can reduce line losses. Increasing the voltage of an existing transmission line in many instances is an effective way of increasing the utilization of the line, and, because of the increased efficiency, less electricity would be required to be generated to provide the same service to the end customer. Consequently, less fuel is consumed, which could result in reduced greenhouse gas emissions.

Energy loss reductions alone do not offset the cost for additional equipment or replacement of existing line and terminal components; voltage upgrades are generally only cost-effective when done to increase capacity.

Public misperception with EMF; the public sometimes wrongly associates increased voltage with increased magnetic fields.

Increasing voltage may require rebuilding lines to obtain sufficient clearances.

Increased cost of higher voltage transmission facilities.

Higher voltage lines may require new permits.

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Solutions:

Implement higher phase order transmission.
Increased public education regarding EMF concerns and effects to change regulatory groups' attitudes toward higher-voltage transmission lines.
Compact designs to use existing structures for higher voltage.

Partnerships:

DOE, EPRI, electric utilities, and equipment manufacturers.

Case Studies:
Six-phase transmission line in New York State.
Florida Power & Light's multi-phase research project.

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Option Category:

Transmission

Build New Transmission Lines

The location of power lines which transmit electricity from generating facilities to points for distribution to customers often does not optimize power delivery efficiency. This may be due to changes in customer demand or location after transmission lines were installed or attempts to avoid installation of expensive new transmission facilities. Proper placement of new transmission lines, especially around metro areas, can significantly reduce transmission losses. Reduced losses result in reduced generation requirements, with subsequent reductions in greenhouse gas emissions.

Also, there are utilities in the U.S. which have more generating capacity than their own system requires, even when considering reserve requirements. In many cases, this spare capacity is more efficient or produces less greenhouse gases than power produced in other systems (e.g., renewable or nuclear energy). This capacity could be made available to other utilities which have a capacity shortage or more carbon-intensive fueled generation. There are other instances where diversity in system loads would permit utilities to share generation. This would reduce energy consumption for spinning reserve and reduce overall generation requirements.

The primary obstacle to efficiently resolving these situations is the lack of transmission line capacity between the affected utilities. New transmission lines can make a contribution to reducing greenhouse gas emissions through more efficient operation of interconnected utility systems.

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Barriers:

Regulatory process involving the routing and permitting of transmission line projects.
Public opposition, concern with EMF and the construction of new transmission lines.
Competitive opportunities which may be created when electricity users have transmission alternatives.
High cost of underground transmission lines.
Regulatory treatment lines constructed for inter-utility transmission may not be considered "used and useful" for jurisdictional ratepayers and could possibly not be included in ratebase.

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Solutions:

Develop low-cost underground transmission lines.
Work to change attitude of public and regulatory agencies concerning the environmental benefit/impact of transmission line projects.
Work to ensure that FERC's transmission pricing policy does not discourage the construction of new transmission facilities.

Partnerships:

State Departments of Natural Resources.
U.S. Forest Service.
The Nature Conservancy and interested environmental groups, in regard to developing right-of-way management plans which will mitigate environmental impacts created by a transmission line.

Case Studies:

American Electric Power West Virginia-Virginia 765 kv transmission line.
Florida Power & Light's low-cost underground transmission line project.

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DISTRIBUTION

The distribution system represents the link between the transmission grid and the customer. The distribution system involves voltages ranging from 120v to 69 kV. There are many different ways to improve the efficiency and reduce losses on the distribution system. In addition to options for improving distribution line performance, improvements can be made in the equipment used on the system, such as transformers, which are a major source of energy loss. All options that reduce system energy losses will have a direct impact on reducing emissions of greenhouse gases.

Option Category:

Distribution

Compensation to Reduce Reactive Power Losses

The use of electric motors requires that the distribution system deliver a form of power known as "reactive power." In residential areas, this is generally not a problem because of the small size and limited number of motors. For commercial and industrial customers, the situation may be quite different. Supplying large amounts of reactive power through the distribution system increases current and energy losses. Connecting capacitors to the distribution system compensates for the reactive power and reduces current and energy losses back through the power system. Compensating for reactive power (correcting the power factor by adding capacitors) improves the efficiency of the electric system by reducing the amount of current flowing in a line, thereby reducing the I²R losses in the line and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

Customers' reluctance to correct their own power factor, especially where rate tariffs do not allow a penalty for large users.

Possible power quality effects.

Energy loss reductions by themselves are not enough to offset new equipment costs.

O&M cost associated with many dispersed installations. Average capacitor lifetime is approximately seven years. Failure of accessory equipment (fuses, switches, controls, etc.) are also commonplace.

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Solutions:

Increase incentive to large customers to correct their own power factor by increasing the rate penalty for a low power factor.
Optimize VAR control function under the Distribution System Automation Option.

Partnerships:

DOE Real Time System Control Program, which awards contracts to utility consultants, manufacturers, and universities.

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Option Category:

Distribution

Distribution System Automation

Distribution Automation (DA) refers to a system that enables an electric utility to remotely monitor, coordinate, and operate distribution components in a real-time mode. In a DA system, there are feeder automation options that include: remote switch control, integrated volt-var control, service restoration, feeder configuration, trouble call, fault location/isolation, load checks, and safety checks. There are also customer automation options that include: remote metering (kWh, kW demand, time-of-use, real-time control), load control, load shedding and shaping for emergencies, economic operation, cold load pickup, remote connect/disconnect, trouble call, and tamper detection. All of these services have the net effect of increasing the overall level of efficiency of the electric system as well as improving overall electric service. The efficiency increases are gained by optimizing power flows on lines, which reduces the I²R losses of the line. Increased efficiency not only means reduced costs; it also means reduced emissions of greenhouse gases as less generation is used to provide the same level of service.

Conventional utility accounting may not justify implementing a DA system and may have prevented many utilities from pursuing this option.

The high cost of developing the communication system and the high cost of equipment and electronic database maintenance are further obstacles to implementing DA systems.

Solutions:

The Distribution System Option, part of DOE's Real-Time System Control Program, offers the multi-function/multi-utility potential for the full implementation of DSM, renewable resource, and storage integration. It also offers active control of the distribution system, which facilitates more efficient use of the entire electric power system from generation through distribution.
As communication systems and DA hardware costs decrease, expansion of DA systems will become viable.

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Partnerships:

DOE Real Time System Control Program, which awards contracts to utility consultants, manufacturers, and universities.
Oak Ridge National Laboratory: Jim Van Coevening, Manager, Power Systems Technology Program, Energy Division, (615) 574-4829.

Case Studies:

Pacific Gas & Electric's Delta Project.
Pacific Gas & Electric's Kerman Project.
EPRI has initiated a research project in dispersed energy systems impacts on distribution systems, which is to address a number of concerns with these technologies.
Pennsylvania Electric Company is participating in a Pennsylvania Electric Energy Research Council (PEERC) project to improve communication on the distribution system. The communication system will give the electric utility an effective method for interrogating devices on the distribution system such as customer meters, switches, reclosers, and fuses. The system will have the capability to communicate with home automation equipment and pass dynamic pricing information, load control schedules, and load survey information to and from the customer.

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Option Category:

Distribution

System Voltage Optimization and Phase Current Balancing

The voltage of the electricity provided to the customer must be maintained within prescribed limits. Operation within these limits is necessary to insure proper operation of customer equipment. Maintaining the customer voltage as close to the standard as practical through careful engineering of the distribution system components and use of voltage regulating equipment controls electrical losses and contributes to improved electric system efficiency. Connecting single-phase load in a careful way eliminates losses associated with residual current flow. Reduced losses, in turn, contribute to reduced greenhouse gas emissions.

Cost of regulation equipment.

Energy loss reductions may not offset costs of new equipment.

Cost of O&M associated with regulation equipment.

Solutions:

R&D on more cost-effective regulation equipment.

Partnerships:

EPRI and DOE.

Case Studies:

In 1991 NRECA published The Distribution System Loss Management Manual. The manual covers various issues, including phase balancing involved in organizing a loss control program on distribution systems.
The NRECA Closed-Loop Voltage Control Project (RER #91-8) led to the development of a new system to control voltage regulators remotely, achieving a better voltage profile on distribution feeders.

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Option Category:

Distribution

Lower Loss Transformers

Transformers are the devices that change the voltage of an AC electric circuit. Although used throughout the electric system, they are most commonly used to reduce the voltage from the distribution level of 4 - 69 kV to the level required by the customer. When a transformer is energized, an electrical loss in the transformer known as "core loss" occurs.

In recent years significant advances have been made by electrical steel producers to improve magnetic permeability and reduce core losses in the crystalline, grain-oriented silicon steel currently employed in utility transformers. These advances have been accomplished through improvements in metallurgy of the basic alloys, more complete magnetic domain refinement, reduced core steel sheet thickness, and increased lamination stacking factors through increased perfection in steel surface quality, thickness uniformity, and interlaminar insulations.

Another way to reduce core losses in a transformer is to change the metal used in the core to one which offers less magnetic resistance. In recent years, transformer cores utilizing amorphous steel have been developed. Unlike most metals that take on a regularly patterned crystalline structure as they cool, amorphous metals retain a more random internal structure that gives them unusual physical and magnetic properties.

Reducing core loss in transformers reduces generating requirements. Because of the large number of transformers installed throughout the country, there is a significant potential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

Core loss reduction has the greatest potential because these losses are present anytime the transformer is energized, regardless of the load. In addition, a decrease in winding loss, which is a function of transformer load, is also achievable, especially when compared to the loss in some of the older units on a system.

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Barriers:

Higher cost of equipment may not be justified based on energy loss reductions.
There is only one supplier of amorphous core material.

Solutions:

Base purchase decisions on lowest overall ownership cost where the costs of losses, etc. are factored in.
Work with utility commissions to allow recovery of increased investment in transformers.
Participate in CCAP Action #30, the EPA Energy Star Transformer Program. Participating utilities agree to purchase qualifying transformers and to institute the early replacement of transformers where economically warranted.

Case Studies:

Minnesota Power has 25 amorphous core distribution transformers installed as part of an EPRI study.
In 1993, approximately 55 percent of the distribution transformers purchased by New England Electric System retail subsidiaries were of the amorphous core design.
Potomac Electric Power Company is installing a low loss transformer at one of its distribution substations with a June, 1994 service date. This is a tailored collaborative research project with EPRI to demonstrate a cooling design for forced-oil/air-cooled (FOA) transformers with advanced winding technology.

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Option Category:

Distribution

Dispersed Energy Storage

Emerging energy storage systems dispersed throughout the transmission and distribution system such as batteries, flywheels, and Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) will improve the dynamic operating capabilities and asset utilization of the system and facilitate the integration of dispersed generation, especially renewable energy technologies that are intermittent generators, i.e., solar and wind power. These dispersed functions, along with the traditional energy storage role of meeting peak demand and energy needs, allow existing generation to function more efficiently and improve the overall efficiency of the electric system. The increase in efficiency not only means reduced operating costs. It also means reduced emissions of greenhouse gases as less generation is used to provide the same level of service and local low- or no-carbon fueled systems can generate electricity for local needs.

SMES and flywheel technologies are under development and not ready for commercial operation in the near-term.

High cost of equipment.

Low energy capacity available from existing dispersed storage technologies.

Unless the source of power to charge storage devices is non-carbon fueled generation, use of storage would in actuality increase, not decrease emissions of greenhouse gases as the overall efficiency of a generator and a storage device is lower than the straight generator itself.

Lack of planning practices that fully assess the value of dispersed storage and generation.

Energy storage systems dispersed throughout the distribution system may require additional dispatch and control systems.

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Solutions:

Support and participate in research to increase energy storage capabilities.
Systems analysis to assess usefulness of dispersed energy storage on individual utility systems.
Work with DOE Energy Storage program to transfer dispersed storage technology to utility systems Russell Eaton III, Director of Advanced Utility Concepts Division, (202) 586-0205.

Partnerships:

DOE, EPRI, Sandia National Laboratories, and utilities.

Case Studies:

EPRI Battery Storage Project at Southern California Edison.
Sandia National Laboratories, Oglethorpe Power, San Diego Gas & Electric, Bonneville Power Authority, and Chugah Electric.
PREPA 10 MW battery storage system, Sandia National Laboratories is assisting with performance testing.
Metropolitan Edison (Met-Ed) GPU is initiating a study with one of Met-Ed's customers to determine if a battery storage facility to "shave" peak load for a specific application is feasible and/or practical. This dispersed energy storage-project would reduce transmission losses in addition to "peaking" requirements.

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TRANSPORTATION

Internal and external actions can be taken by electric utilities to help reduce the emission of greenhouse gases from the transportation sector. These actions include:

Internal actions - (1) alter utility operations or procedures, such as increasing use of electric vehicles or converting gasoline powered vehicles to compressed natural gas or liquefied petroleum gas; and/or (2) alter utility and other industry operations in the area of off-road vehicles (such as forklift trucks).

External actions - involvement in and support of efforts to increase the use of electric vehicles and electrified mass transit systems.

Option Category:

Transportation

Utilize Electric, Compressed Natural Gas, and Alternative Fueled Vehicles as Utility Fleet Vehicles

Utilities operate large fleets of vehicles, including cars, vans, and trucks of many types and sizes. Greenhouse gas emissions from these vehicles could be reduced by:

converting them to a fuel such as compressed natural gas (CNG) or liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) which would result in lower CO2 and other greenhouse gas emissions;

replacing them with electric vehicles (EVs) in coordination with programs such as EV America which is working to develop a common set of specifications for cars, vans and light duty trucks for use in utility and utility customer fleets; and

utilizing other available electric vehicles for fleet use and encouraging an information sharing program on performance, range, etc.

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Barriers:

Need for government funding to help facilitate development and demonstration of viable electric vehicles for commercial fleets.
Vehicles converted to CNG and LPG have not always achieved projected system emission reductions.
Refueling facilities are not readily available for CNG/LPG.

Solutions:

Participate in EV application programs such as EV America or Federally supported demonstrations.
Develop information dissemination program and possible computer data base using EEI On-Line on EV fleet availability, performance, lessons learned by other utilities, battery developments, recharging developments, etc.
Buy dedicated CNG/LPG vehicles, and/or establish CNG/LPG refueling stations to facilitate broader use.

Industry-proposed solutions requiring legislative,policy, or regulatory action.

Fund programs that encourage the use of electric vehicles, such as the EV Commercial Demonstration Program and the EV Infrastructure Program that were authorized in the Energy Policy Act of 1992.

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Partnerships:

In conjunction with EV America and the DOE Site Operators Task Force partner with DOE to find funding for fleet use of electric vehicles. DOE Contact: Kenneth F. Barber, Director Electric and Hybrid Propulsion Division, (202) 586-2198.
Partner with other fleet users in establishing CNG/LPG refueling stations and other infrastructure.

Case Studies:

Allegheny Power Service Corp., Arizona Public Service, Potomac Electric Power Co., Southern California Edison, Pennsylvania Power and Light, Pacific Gas & Electric, Public Service Electric and Gas, Salt River Project, Los Angeles Dept. of Water and Power, New York Power Authority, and Niagara Mohawk all have extensive experience in EV use and can be helpful in development of data base information and the development of EV America. Some of these companies have also worked with the DOE Site Operator's Task Force.
Arizona Public Service has just developed a system that swaps an electric vehicle's spent battery pack with a fresh one, which could have considerable implications for fleet use.
Each of the three General Public Utilities' operating companies is involved in the development of an electric vehicle (based on a Chevrolet S10 pickup) for use initially by meter readers. It is expected that this vehicle will be on the road sometime in 1996.
Philadelphia Electric Company (PECO) has committed to opening at least 10 CNG refueling stations by the end of 1995 and expanding its fleet of 85 CNG vehicles by 100 or more each year beginning in 1994. By 2000, PECO expects its vehicle fleet to be over 40 percent powered by natural gas.
Pacific Gas and Electric and San Diego Gas and Electric's plan on installing over 30 CNG refueling stations, converting their fleets to natural gas, and providing incentives for private fleet owners to do the same.

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Option Category

Transportation

Name of Option

Conversion of Materials Handling Vehicles

Utilities and other industries traditionally use internal combustion engine vehicles (such as forklift trucks) to move and handle equipment and other materials. However, electric alternatives are available and in use today. Identifying ways to expand their use first with utilities and then in other industries can make significant reductions not only in greenhouse gas emissions, but also in other emissions associated with internal combustion engines.

Lack of information on electric alternatives for materials handling

Because of the limited use of electric units, the first costs are higher and therefore economic considerations may eliminate the incentive to switch to electric alternatives (even though the lifespan of electric vehicles is longer) without some other "carrot".

Need for creation of easy-to-install recharging equipment in warehouses.

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Solutions:

Develop a program with manufacturers, DOE, EPA, and utilities to facilitate the expansion of electric materials handling vehicles for utility and industry use, looking for cost reductions, emission reduction information, potential for conversion of internal combustion counterparts, etc. This program may be carried out in conjunction with the Climate Wise program, which offers "awards" for industries that make significant environmental reductions.
Develop a data base of information and booklets that describe the equipment, its ease of use, its applications, recharging information, etc. for distribution to membership and industry.

Partnerships:

DOE, EPA, the Industrial Truckers Association, and key manufacturers.

Case Studies:

Pennsylvania Power & Light has a materials handling "rodeo" every year.

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Option Category:

Transportation

Support Mass Transportation Electrification

The transportation sector is a major consumer of energy, accounting for approximately 27 percent of the energy consumed annually in the U.S. This energy is primarily in the form of oil products: gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel. Electricity is used by urban heavy and light rail mass transit systems and in some rail corridors. Electrification of additional mass transit segments could contribute to a significant net reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, as well as other emissions associated with internal combustion engines.

Examples of possible support for a further electrification in the transportation sector are:

encouraging studies by cities and states to add electric buses; and

expanding the transportation infrastructure with electrified rail.

High initial capital cost of electrification systems.

Reluctance of governments to provide subsidies to offset the high cost per passenger of mass transit systems.

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Solutions:

Work with AMTRAK, which has done electrification studies for the Northeast corridor, to see the applicability to other areas of the country.
Develop study in coordination with DOT and DOE on cost of developing mass transit, including electric buses and emission reduction potentials. May be appropriate for some states to include in CAA compliance plans.
Work with manufacturers to develop information program on transit systems, availability of equipment such as electric buses, etc.
Fund electric mass transit programs in transportation appropriations legislation.

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Partnerships:

Partner with DOE, DOT, EPA, AMTRAK, manufacturers of transit systems, and cities and states to implement solutions.

Case Studies:

AMTRAK and DOT have completed studies on electrification of transportation.
Chattanooga, TN, Richmond, VA and Santa Barbara, CA all have electric buses for city-wide use. Richmond has recently ordered 15 electric buses for mass transit use. New York City has a cross-city electric bus.

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Option Category:

Transportation

Support Development of Zero Emission Vehicles (ZEVs)

Description

The transportation sector is a major consumer of energy, accounting for approximately 27 percent of the energy consumed annually in the U.S. This energy is primarily in the form of oil products: gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel. Support of personal electric vehicle technology and infrastructure development would contribute to a net reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, as well as other emissions associated with internal combustion engines.